Volume 31 - Article 46 | Pages 1365–1416
The educational gradient of childlessness and cohort parity progression in 14 low fertility countries
By Jonas Wood, Karel Neels, Tine Kil
References
Aassve, A., Billari, F.C., and Spéder, Z. (2006). Societal Transition, Policy Changes and Family Formation: Evidence from Hungary. European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie 22(2): 127-152.
Abraham, K.G., Maitland, A., and Bianchi, S.M. (2006). Nonresponse in the American Time Use Survey: Who Is Missing from the Data and How Much Does It Matter? Public Opinion Quarterly 70(5): 676-703.
Adsera, A. (2011). The interplay of employment uncertainty and education in explaining second births in Europe. Demographic Research S12(16): 513-544 (10.4054/DemRes.2011.25.16).
Andersson, G., Hoem, J.M., and Duvander, A.-Z. (2006). Social differentials in speed-premium effects in childbearing in Sweden. Demographic Research 14(4): 51-70 (10.4054/DemRes.2006.14.4).
Arts, W. and Gelissen, J. (2002). Three worlds of welfare capitalism or more? A state-of-the-art report. Journal of European Social Policy 12(2): 137-158.
Avdeyeva, O. (2009). Social Policy Reforms in Hungary: Towards a Dual-earner Model? Paper presented at the EUSA Eleventh Biennial International Conference, Los Angeles, California, April 23–25 2009.
Bagavos, C. (2010). Education and childlessness: the relationship between educational field, educational level, employment and childlessness among Greek women born in 1955-1959. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2010 2010: 51-75.
Baranowska-Rataj, A. and Matysiak, A. (2014). The causal effects of the number of children on female employment – do European institutional and gender conditions matter? Warsaw, Poland: Institute of Statistics and Demography, Warsaw School of Economics (working paper no. 39).
Beaujouan, É., Sobotka, T., Brzozowska, Z., and Neels, K. (2013). Education and sex differences in intended family size in Europe, 1990s and 2000s. Paper presented at the Changing families and fertility choices conference, Oslo, Norway, June 6–7 2013.
Becker, G. (1991). A Treatise on the Family. London: Harvard University Press.
Becker, G. (1960). An Economic Analysis of Fertility. Demographic and economic change in developed countries. Princeton: Universities-National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).
Becker, G.S. and Lewis, H.G. (1973). On the Interaction between the Quantity and Quality of Children. Journal of Political Economy 81(2): S279-S288.
Berent, J. (1970). Causes of Fertility Decline in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union II: Economic and Social Factors. Population Studies 24(2): 247-292.
Bergstrand, R., Vedin, A., Wilhelmsson, C., and Wilhelmsen, L. (1983). Bias due to non-participation and heterogenous sub-groups in population surveys. Journal of Chronic Diseases 36(10): 725-728.
Blossfeld, H.-P. and Huinink, J. (1991). Human Capital Investments or Norms of Role Transition? How Women's Schooling and Career Affect the Process of Family Formation. American Journal of Sociology 97(1): 143-168.
Bodnár, J. and Böröcz, J. (1998). Housing Advantages for the Better Connected? Institutional Segmentation, Settlement Type and Social Network Effects in Hungary's Late State-Socialist Housing Inequalities. Social Forces 76(4): 1275-1304.
Bratti, M. (2003). Labour force participation and marital fertility of Italian women: The role of education. Journal of Population Economics 16(3): 525-554.
Buchholz, S., Hofäcker, D., Mills, M., Blossfeld, H.-P., Kurz, K., and Hofmeister, H. (2009). Life Courses in the Globalization Process: The Development of Social Inequalities in Modern Societies. European Sociological Review 25(1): 53-71.
Burkimsher, M. (2009). Assessment of fertility indicators derived from GGP samples. Bulgaria, Hungary and Georgia [unpublished manuscript]. Lausanne: University of Lausanne.
Caltabiano, M., Castiglioni, M., and Rosina, A. (2009). Lowest-Low Fertility: Signs of a recovery in Italy? Demographic Research 21(23): 681-718 (10.4054/DemRes.2009.21.23).
Cigno, A. (1991). Economics of the Family. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Cohen, J.E., Kravdal, Ø., and Keilman, N. (2011). Childbearing impeded education more than education impeded childbearing among Norwegian women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108(29): 11830-11835.
De Wachter, D. and Neels, K. (2012). Educational differentials in fertility intentions and outcomes: family formation in Flanders in the early 1990s. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2011 9: 227-258.
Delgado, M., Meil, G., and Zamora-López, F. (2008). Spain: Short on children and short on family policies. Demographic Research S7(27): 1059-1104 (10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.27).
Desmet, B., Glorieux, I., and Vandeweyer, J. (2007). Wie zijn de loopbaanonderbrekers. Socio-demografische kenmerken, motivaties en arbeidshouding van loopbaanonderbrekers. Brussel: Vrije Universiteit Brussel, TOR.
Duvander, A.-Z., Lappegård, T., and Andersson, G. (2010). Family policy and fertility: fathers’ and mothers’ use of parental leave and continued childbearing in Norway and Sweden. Journal of European Social Policy 20(1): 45-57.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1999). Social Foundations of Postindustrial Economies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Esteve, A., Lesthaeghe, R., and López-Gay, A. (2012). The Latin American Cohabitation Boom, 1970–2007. Population and Development Review 38(1): 55-81.
EURYDICE (2011). Adults in formal education policies and practices in Europe [electronic resource].
Fagnani, J. (2002). Why do French women have more children than German women? Family policies and attitudes towards child care outside the home. Community, Work & Family 5(1): 103-119.
Ferge, Z. (1997). Social Policy Challenges and Dilemmas in Ex-Socialist Systems. In: Nelson, J.M., Tilly, C., and Walker, L. (eds.). Transforming Post-Communist Political Economies. Washington: National Academies Press: 299-321.
Ferge, Z. (2002). Social Structure and Inequalities in Old Socialism and New Capitalism in Hungary. Review of Sociology 8(2): 9-33.
Fitzgerald, J., Gottschalk, P., and Moffitt, R. (1998). An Analysis of Sample Attrition in Panel Data: The Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The Journal of Human Resources 33(2): 251-299.
Frejka, T. and Calot, G. (2001). Cohort Reproductive Patterns in Low-Fertility Countries. Population and Development Review 27(1): 103-132.
Friedman, D., Hechter, M., and Kanazawa, S. (1994). A theory of the value of children. Demography 31(3): 375-401.
Gauthier, A.H. (2002). Family Policies in Industrialized Countries: Is There Convergence? Population 57(3): 447-474.
Ghysels, J. and Van Lancker, W. (2009). Het Mattheüseffect onder de loep: over het ongelijke gebruik van kinderopvang in Vlaanderen. CSB Berichten. Antwerpen: Centrum voor Sociaal Beleid Herman Deleeck.
Gjonca, A., Aassve, A., and Mencarini, L. (2008). Albania: Trends and patterns, proximate determinants and policies of fertility change. Demographic Research S7(11): 261-292 (10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.11).
Goldberg, M., Chastang, J.F., Leclerc, A., Zins, M., Bonenfant, S., Bugel, I., Kaniewski, N., Schmaus, A., Niedhammer, I., Piciotti, M., Chevalier, A., Godard, C., and Imbernon, E. (2001). Socioeconomic, Demographic, Occupational, and Health Factors Associated with Participation in a Long-term Epidemiologic Survey: A Prospective Study of the French GAZEL Cohort and Its Target Population. American Journal of Epidemiology 154(4): 373-384.
Hakim, C. (2003). A New Approach to Explaining Fertility Patterns: Preference Theory. Population and Development Review 29(3): 349-374.
Hegedüs, J., Eszenyi, O., and Teller, N. (2009). Housing Needs in Hungary. Budapest: Metropolitan Research Institute.
Hoem, J.M. and Kreyenfeld, M. (2006). Anticipatory analysis and its alternatives in life-course research: Part 1: Education and first childbearing. Demographic Research 15(16): 461-484 (10.4054/DemRes.2006.15.16).
Hoem, J.M., Neyer, G.R., and Andersson, G. (2006). Education and childlessness: The relationship between educational field, educational level, and childlessness among Swedish women born in 1955-59. Demographic Research 14(15): 331-380 (10.4054/DemRes.2006.14.15).
Jenkins, A. (2011). Educational attainment, labour market conditions and the timing of first and higher-order births in Britain. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies 2(2): 202-227.
Kantorová, V. (2006). Education and Entry into Motherhood in the Czech Republic During State-Socialism and the Transition Period 1970–1997. Education and Postponement of Maternity. In: Gustafsson, S. and Kalwij, A. (eds.). Education and Postponement of Maternity: Economic Analyses for Industrialized Countries. Dordrecht: Springer: 237-258.
Kantorová, V. (2004). Education and Entry into Motherhood: The Czech Republic during State Socialism and the Transition Period (1970-1997). Demographic Research S3(10): 245-274 (10.4054/DemRes.2004.S3.10).
Keil, T.J. and Andreescu, V. (1999). Fertility policy in Ceausescu’s Romania. Journal of Family History 24(4): 478-492.
Kertesi, G. and Köllö, J. (2001). Economic transformation and the revaluation of human capital Hungary, 1986–1999. Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Economics (Budapest Working Papers on the Labour Market no. BWP. 2001/4).
Kharkova, T.L. and Andreev, E.M. (2000). Did the Economic Crisis Cause the Fertility Decline in Russia: Evidence from the 1994 Microcensus. European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie 16(3): 211-233.
Klesment, M. and Puur, A. (2010). Effects of education on second births before and after societal transition: Evidence from the Estonian GGS. Demographic Research S12(28): 891-932 (10.4054/DemRes.2010.22.28).
Klüsener, S., Neels, K., and Kreyenfeld, M. (2013). Family Policies and the Western European Fertility Divide: Insights from a Natural Experiment in Belgium. Population and Development Review 39(4): 587-610.
Kocourková, J. (2002). Leave arrangements and childcare services in Central Europe: Policies and practices before and after the transition. Community, Work & Family 5(3): 301-318.
Köppen, K. (2006). Second births in western Germany and France. Demographic Research 14(14): 295-330 (10.4054/DemRes.2006.14.14).
Korpi, W. (2000). Faces of Inequality: Gender, Class and Patterns of Inequalities in Different Types of Welfare Sates. Luxembourgh (Luxembourgh Income Study Working Paper no. 224).
Koytcheva, E. (2006). Social-demographic differences of fertility and union formation in Bulgaria before and after the start of the societal transition. [Ph.D. thesis]. Rostock: Universität Rostock, Sozialwissenschaftliche Fakultät.
Kravdal, Ø. (2007). Effects of current education on second- and third-birth rates among Norwegian women and men born in 1964: Substantive interpretations and methodological issues. Demographic Research 17(9): 211-246 (10.4054/DemRes.2007.17.9).
Kravdal, Ø. (1992). The Emergence of a Positive Relation Between Education and Third Birth Rates in Norway with Supportive Evidence from the United States. Population Studies 46(3): 459-475.
Kravdal, Ø. (2001). The High Fertility of College Educated Women in Norway: An Artefact of the Separate Modelling of Each Parity Transition. Demographic Research 5(6): 187-216 (10.4054/DemRes.2001.5.6).
Kravdal, Ø. and Rindfuss, R.R. (2008). Changing Relationships between Education and Fertility: A Study of Women and Men Born 1940 to 1964. American Sociological Review 73(5): 854-873.
Kremer, B., Sziklai, I., and Tausz, K. (2002). The Impact of Decentralization on Social Policy in Hungary. In: Tausz, K. (ed.). The Impact of Decentralization on Social Policy. Budapest: Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative: 89-132.
Kreyenfeld, M. (2004). Fertility Decisions in the FRG and GDR: An Analysis with Data from the German Fertility and Family Survey. Demographic Research S3(11): 275-318 (10.4054/DemRes.2004.S3.11).
Kreyenfeld, M. (2002). Time Squeeze, Partner Effect or Self-Selection?: An Investigation into the Positive Effect of Women’s Education on Second Birth Risks in West Germany. Demographic Research 7(2): 15-48 (10.4054/DemRes.2002.7.2).
Kreyenfeld, M., Hornung, A., Kubisch, K., and Jaschinski, I. (2010). Fertility and Union Histories from German GGS Data: Some Critical Reflections. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (MPIDR working paper no. 2010-023).
Kreyenfeld, M., Zeman, K., Burkimsher, M., and Jaschinski, I. (2011). Fertility data for German-speaking countries: What is the potential? Where are the pitfalls? Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (MPIDR working paper no. 2011-003).
Lappegård, T. (2002). Educational attainment and fertility patterns among Norwegian women. Oslo: Statistics Norway.
Lappegård, T. and Rønsen, M. (2005). The Multifaceted Impact of Education on Entry into Motherhood. European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie 21(1): 31-49.
Lauwereys, G., Neels, K., and De Winter, T. (2011). GGS Wave 1 Belgium: Final Disposition Codes and Standardised Response Rates. Belgium (GGP Belgium Paper Series no. 3).
Lesthaeghe, R. (2010). The Unfolding Story of the Second Demographic Transition. Michigan: Population Studies Center (Research Report no. 10-696).
Lesthaeghe, R. and Neidert, L. (2006). The Second Demographic Transition in the United States: Exception or Textbook Example? Population and Development Review 32(4): 669-698.
Lesthaeghe, R. and Neidert, L. (2009). US Presidential Elections and the Spatial Pattern of the American Second Demographic Transition. Population and Development Review 35(2): 391-400.
Lesthaeghe, R. and Surkyn, J. (1988). Cultural Dynamics and Economic Theories of Fertility Change. Population and Development Review 14(1): 1−45.
Liefbroer, A.C. and Corijn, M. (1999). Who, What, Where, and When? Specifying the Impact of Educational Attainment and Labour Force Participation on Family Formation. European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie 15(1): 45-75.
Martin, T.C. and Juarez, F. (1995). The Impact of Women's Education on Fertility In Latin America: Searching for Explanations. International Family Planning Perspectives 21(2): 52-80.
Martín-García, T. and Baizán, P. (2006). The Impact of the Type of Education and of Educational Enrolment on First Births. European Sociological Review 22(3): 259-275.
Matysiak, A. and Vignoli, D. (2010). Employment around first birth in two adverse institutional settings: Evidence from Italy and Poland. Journal of Family Research – Zeitschrift für Familienforschung 22(3): 331-349.
McDonald, P. (2006). Low Fertility and the State: The Efficacy of Policy. Population and Development Review 32(3): 485-510.
McIntyre, R.J. (1975). Pronatalist programmes in Eastern Europe. Soviet Studies 27(3): 366-380.
McIntyre, R.J. and Lindley, J.T. (1972). The Fertility Response to Abortion Reform in Eastern Europe: Demographic and Economic Implications. The American Economist 16(2): 45-65.
Mencarini, L. and Tanturri, M.L. (2006). High Fertility or Childlessness: Micro-level determinants of reproductive behaviour in Europe. Population 61(4): 389-416.
Mills, M., Mencarini, L., Tanturri, M. L., and Begall, K. (2008). Gender Equity and Fertility Intentions in Italy and the Netherlands. Demographic Research 18(1): 1−26.
Morel, N. (2007). From Subsidiarity to ‘Free Choice’: Child- and Elder-care Policy Reforms in France, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. Social Policy & Administration 41(6): 618-637.
Moskoff, W. (1980). Pronatalist Policies in Romania. Economic Development and Cultural Change 28(3): 597-614.
Muresan, C. (2008). Educational Attainment and Second Births in Romania. Paper presented at the European Population Conference 2008, Barcelona, Spain, July 9–12 2008.
Muresan, C., Hărăguş, P.-T., Hărăguş, M., and Schröder, C. (2008). Romania: Childbearing metamorphosis within a changing context. Demographic Research S7(23): 855-906 (10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.23).
Muresan, C. and Hoem, J.M. (2010). The negative educational gradients in Romanian fertility. Demographic Research 22(4): 95-114 (10.4054/DemRes.2010.22.4).
Muszyńska, M. (2007). Structural and cultural determinants of fertility in Europe. [Ph.D. thesis]. Warsaw: Warsaw School of Economics.
Neels, K. and De Wachter, D. (2010). Postponement and recuperation of Belgian fertility: how are they related to rising female educational attainment? Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2010 2010: 77-106.
Neels, K. and Gadeyne, S. (2010). Het effect van opleidingsniveau op tempo en kwantum van rangspecifieke vruchtbaarheid in België: 1960–2000. In: Matthijs, K., Van de Putte, B., Kok, J., and Bras, H. (eds.). Leven in de lage landen. Historisch-demografisch onderzoek in Vlaanderen en Nederland. Leuven/Den Haag: Acco: 211-238.
Neels, K. and Theunynck, Z. (2012). Gezinsvorming en vrouwelijke arbeidsparticipatie: de opleidingsgradiënt van voltijds werk en attitudes ten aanzien van gezin en werk in 10 Europese landen. Tijdschrift voor Sociologie 33(3-4): 428-461.
Neels, K. and Theunynck, Z. (2012). The educational gradient and the gender differential of parental employment in Norway, France, Belgium, Austria, West-Germany, Estonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Georgia. Paper presented at the European Population Conference 2012, Stockholm, Sweden, June 13–16 2012.
Neels, K. and Wood, J. (2013). Postponement of recuperation of first births in Europe: the effect of economic and institutional contexts over the life-course. Paper presented at the PAA, New Orleans LA, April 11-13.
Neyer, G.R. and Andersson, G. (2008). Consequences of Family Policies on Childbearing Behavior: Effects or Artifacts? Population and Development Review 34(4): 699-724.
Neyer, G.R. and Hoem, J.M. (2008). Education and permanent childlessness: Austria vs. Sweden. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (MPIDR working paper no. 2008-007).
Ni Bhrolchain, M. and Beaujouan, E. (2012). Fertility Postponement is largely due to rising educational enrolment. Population Studies 66(3): 311–327.
Nicoletti, C. and Peracchi, F. (2005). Survey response and survey characteristics: microlevel evidence from the European Community Household Panel. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 168(4): 763-781.
OECD (2011a). Doing Better For Families 2011 [electronic resource].
OECD (2001). Education at a Glance 2001: OECD Indicators [electronic resource].
OECD (2011b). Education at a Glance 2011: OECD Indicators [electronic resource].
Oláh, L.S. and Bernhardt, E. (2008). Sweden: Combining childbearing and gender equality. Demographic Research S7(28): 1105-1144 (10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.28).
Oláh, L.S. and Fratczak, E. (2004). Becoming a Mother in Hungary and Poland during State Socialism. Demographic Research S3: 213-244 (10.4054/DemRes.2004.S3.9).
Parr, N. (2004). Family Background, Schooling and Childlessness in Australia. Paper presented at the Population Association of America, Boston, April 1–3 2004.
Perelli-Harris, B. (2008). Ukraine: On the border between old and new in uncertain times. Demographic Research S7(29): 1145-1178 (10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.29).
Perelli-Harris, B., Kreyenfeld, M., and Kubisch, K. (2010). Harmonized Histories Manual for the Preparation of Comparative Fertility and Union Histories. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (MPIDR working paper no. 2010-011).
Pickery, J., Loosveldt, G., and Carton, A. (2001). The Effects of Interviewer and Respondent Characteristics on Response Behavior in Panel Surveys: A Multilevel Approach. Sociological Methods & Research 29(4): 509-523.
Rønsen, M. and Skrede, K. (2010). Can public policies sustain fertility in the Nordic countries?: Lessons from the past and questions for the future. Demographic Research 22(13): 321-346 (10.4054/DemRes.2010.22.13).
Ruokolainen, A. and Notkola, I.-L. (2002). Familial, situational and attitudinal determinants of third-birth intentions and their uncertainty. Yearbook of Population Research in Finland 38: 179-206.
Sauer, L., Ruckdeschel, K., and Naderi, R. (2012). Reliability of retrospective event histories within the German Generations and Gender Survey. Federal Institute for Population Research (BiB Working Papers no. 1/2012).
Smith, S. and Ratcliffe, A. (2009). Women’s Education and Childbearing: A Growing Divide. In: Kneale, D., Coast, E., and Stillwell, J. (eds.). Fertility, Living Arrangements, Care and Mobility. Dordrecht: Springer: 41-58.
Sobotka, T. (2004). Postponement of Childbearing and Low fertility in Europe. [Ph.D. thesis]. Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
Spéder, Z. and Kamarás, F. (2008). Hungary: Secular fertility decline with distinct period fluctuations. Demographic Research S7(18): 599-664 (10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.18).
Steele, F., Kallis, C., Goldstein, H., and Joshi, H. (2005). The Relationship between Childbearing and Transitions from Marriage and Cohabitation in Britain. Demography 42(4): 647-673.
Thévenon, O. (2008). Family policies in Europe: available databases and initial comparisons. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2008 2008: 165-177.
UN (2004). World Population Monitoring 2003: Population, education and development. New York: United Nations Publications.
UNICEF (1999). Women in Transition a Summary. Florence: United Nations Children's Fund International Child Development Centre (The MONEE Project Regional Monitoring Reports no. 6).
Van Bavel, J. (2006). Field of education, postponement intentions and childlessness. Paper presented at the European Population Conference, Liverpool, UK, June 21–24 2006.
Van de Kaa, D. (2002). The Idea of a Second Demographic Transition in Industrialized Countries. Paper presented at the Sixth Welfare Policy Seminar of the National Institute of Population and Social Security, Tokyo, Japan, January 29 2002.
Van Lancker, W. and Van Mechelen, N. (2014). Universalism under siege? Exploring the association between targeting, child benefits and child poverty across 26 countries. (CSB Working Papers no. 14/01).
Van Loon, A.J.M., Tijhuis, M., Picavet, H.S.J., Surtees, P.G., and Ormel, J. (2003). Survey Non-response in the Netherlands: Effects on Prevalence Estimates and Associations. Annals of Epidemiology 13(2): 105-110.
Vergauwen, J., Wood, J., and Neels, K. (2012). Quality of Demographic Data in GGS Wave 1. Validation of nuptiality and fertility indicators. Paper presented at the European Population Conference 2012, Stockholm, Sweden, June 13–16 2012.
Viitanen, T.K. (2005). Cost of Childcare and Female Employment in the UK. Labour 19: 149-170.
Wooldridge, J.M. (2002). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge, MA: MIT-Press.
World, Bank (2012). Education [electronic resource].
Zakharov, S. (2008). Russian Federation: From the first to second demographic transition. Demographic Research S7(24): 907-972.