Volume 48 - Article 20 | Pages 549–590
Family inequality: On the changing educational gradient of family patterns in Western Germany
By Ansgar Hudde, Henriette Engelhardt
References
Arránz Becker, O. and Lois, D. (2010). Selection, alignment, and their interplay: Origins of lifestyle homogamy in couple relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family 72(5): 1234–1248.
Baizán, P., Aassve, A., and Billari, F.C. (2004). The interrelations between cohabitation, marriage and first birth in Germany and Sweden. Population and Environment 25(6): 531–561.
Beaujouan, E. and Berghammer, C. (2019). The gap between lifetime fertility intentions and completed fertility in Europe and the United States: A cohort approach. Population Research and Policy Review 38(4): 507–535.
Becker, G.S. (1993). A treatise on the family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bellani, D., Esping-Andersen, G., and Nedoluzhko, L. (2017). Never partnered: A multilevel analysis of lifelong singlehood. Demographic Research 37(4): 53–100.
Berkman, L.F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., and Seeman, T.E. (2000). From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Social Science and Medicine 51(6): 843–857.
Besbris, M. and Khan, S. (2017). Less theory. More description. Sociological Theory 35(2): 147–153.
Blossfeld, H.-P. (2009). Educational assortative marriage in comparative perspective. Annual Review of Sociology 35: 513–530.
Blossfeld, H.-P. and Huinink, J. (1991). Human capital investments or norms of role transition? How women’s schooling and career affect the process of family formation. American Journal of Sociology 97(1): 143–168.
BMFSFJ (2020). (Existenzsichernde) Erwerbstätigkeit von Müttern ‒ Konzepte, Entwicklungen und Perspektiven’. Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend - Monitor Familienforschung - Beiträge aus Forschung, Statistik und Familienpolitik 41.
Bolzendahl, C.I. and Myers, D.J. (2004). Feminist attitudes and support for gender equality: Opinion change in women and men, 1974–1998. Social Forces 83(2): 759–789.
Boudon, R. (2003). Beyend rational choice theory. Annual Review of Sociology 29: 1–21.
Brady, D. and Burroway, R. (2012). Targeting, universalism, and single-mother poverty: A multilevel analysis across 18 affluent democracies’. Demography 49: 719–746.
Brooks, C. and Bolzendahl, C. (2004). The transformation of US gender role attitudes: Cohort replacement, social-structural change, and ideological learning’. Social Science Research 33(1): 106–133.
Brzozowska, Z. (2021). Attitudinal and behavioural indices of the second demographic transition: Evidence from the last three decades in Europe’. Demographic Research 44(46): 1115–1132.
Buhr, P. and Huinink, J. (2017). Why childless men and women give up on having children. European Journal of Population 33(4): 585–606.
Cherlin, A.J. (2016). A happy ending to a half a century of family change? Population and Development Review 42(1): 121–129.
Cohn, D. (2013). Love and marriage. Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center, Social and Demographic Trends.
Cygan-Rehm, K. (2014). Immigrant fertility in Germany: The role of culture. Schmollers Jahrbuch ‒ Journal of Applied Science Studies 134(3): 305–340.
Davis, S.N. and Greenstein, T.N. (2009). Gender ideology: Components, predictors, and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology 35(1): 87–105.
Davis, S.N. and Greenstein, T.N. (2004). Interactive effects of gender ideology and age at first marriage on women’s marital disruption. Journal of Family Issues 25(5): 658–682.
Destatis (2018). Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit ‒ Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund, Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 2017. Wiesbaden: Statistisches Bundesamt, Fachserie 1 Reihe 2.2.
Dupre, M.E., Beck, A.N., and Meadows, S.O. (2009). Marital trajectories and mortality among US adults. American Journal of Epidemiology 170(5): 546–555.
Dykstra, P.A. and Jong Gierveld, J. (2004). Gender and marital-history differences in emotional and social loneliness among Dutch older adults. Canadian Journal on Aging/La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement 23(2): 141–155.
Ebner, C., Kühhirt, M., and Lersch, P. (2020). Cohort changes in the level and dispersion of gender ideology after German reunification: Results from a natural experiment. European Sociological Review 36(5): 814–828.
Ermisch, J. and Siedler, T. (2009). Living apart together. In: Brynin, M. and Ermisch, J. (eds.). Changing relationships. New York: Routledge: 29–43.
Esping-Andersen, G. (2016). Families in the 21st century. Stockholm: SNS förlag.
Esping-Andersen, G. (2014). The fertility gap in Europe: Singularities of the Spanish case. Barcelona: La Caixa Foundation.
Esping-Andersen, G. and Billari, F.C. (2015). Re-theorizing family demographics. Population and Development Review 41(1): 1–31.
Esteve, A., Schwartz, C.R., Van Bavel, J., Permanyer, I., Klesment, M., and Garcia, J. (2016). The end of hypergamy: Global trends and implications. Population and Development Review 42(4): 615–625.
Fleckenstein, T. (2010). Party politics and childcare: Comparing the expansion of service provision in England and Germany. Social Policy and Administration 44(7): 789–807.
Fleckenstein, T. and Lee, S.C. (2014). The politics of postindustrial social policy: Family policy reforms in Britain, Germany, South Korea, and Sweden. Comparative Political Studies 47(4): 601–630.
Goldscheider, F., Bernhardt, E., and Lappegård, T. (2015). The gender revolution: A framework for understanding changing family and demographic behavior. Population and Development Review 41(2): 207–239.
Greitemeyer, T. (2007). What do men and women want in a partner? Are educated partners always more desirable? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43(2): 180–194.
Hank, K. and Wagner, M. (2013). Parenthood, marital status, and well-being in later life: Evidence from SHARE. Social Indicators Research 114(2): 639–653.
Härkönen, J. and Dronkers, J. (2006). Stability and change in the educational gradient of divorce. A comparison of seventeen countries. European Sociological Review 22(5): 501–517.
Haug, S. (2003). Interethnische Freundschaftsbeziehungen und soziale Integration. KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 55(4): 716–736.
Hill, P.B. and Kopp, J. (2015). Theoretische Ansätze der Familiensoziologie. In: Hill, P.B. and Kopp, J. (eds.). Handbuch Familiensoziologie. Wiesbaden: Springer VS: 209–238.
Hook, J.L. and Paek, E. (2020). A stalled revolution? Change in women’s labor force participation during child-rearing years, Europe and the United States 1996–2016. Population and Development Review 46(4): 677–708.
Hudde, A. (2020). Homogamy in gender role attitudes among young couples: Evidence from Germany’. KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift Für Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie 72(3): 403–428.
Huinink, J., Brüderl, J., Nauck, B., Walper, S., Castiglioni, L., and Feldhaus, M. (2011). Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (Pairfam): Conceptual framework and design’. Zeitschrift Fur Familienforschung 23(1): 77–101.
Jalovaara, M., Neyer, G., Andersson, G., Dahlberg, J., Dommermuth, L., Fallesen, P., and Lappegård, T. (2018). Education, gender, and cohort fertility in the Nordic countries. European Journal of Population 35: 563–586.
Jónsson, A.K. (2021). A nation of bastards? Registered cohabitation, childbearing, and first-marriage formation in Iceland, 1994–2013. European Journal of Population 37(1): 65–95.
Kalmijn, M. (2013). The educational gradient in marriage: A comparison of 25 European countries. Demography 50(4): 1499–1520.
Kalmijn, M. and Bernasco, W. (2001). Joint and separated lifestyles in couple relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family 63(3): 639–654.
Kefalas, M.J., Furstenberg, F.F., Carr, P.J., and Napolitano, L. (2011). Marriage is more than being together’: The meaning of marriage for young adults. Journal of Family Issues 32(7): 845–875.
Konietzka, D. and Kreyenfeld, M. (2017). From an alternative to a precarious family form? The changing role of education in nonmarital childbearing in Germany. Swiss Journal of Sociology 43(3): 611–638.
Konietzka, D. and Kreyenfeld, M. (2010). The growing educational divide in mothers’ employment: An investigation based on the German micro-censuses 1976‒2004. Work, Employment and Society 24(2): 260–278.
Kravdal, Ø and Rindfuss, R.R. (2008). Changing relationships between education and fertility: A study of women and men born 1940 to 1964’. American Sociological Review 73(5): 854–873.
Kuhnt, A.K., Kreyenfeld, M., and Trappe, H. (2017). Fertility ideals of women and men across the life course. In: Kreyenfeld, M. and Konietzka, D. (eds.). Childlessness in Europe: Contexts, causes, and consequences. Cham: Springer: 235–251.
Lengerer, A. (2007). Zur Abgrenzung nichtehelicher Lebensgemeinschaften im Mikrozensus. Mannheim: GESIS-ZUMA, ZUMA-Methodenbericht 2007/04.
Lengerer, A., Janßen, A., and Bohr, J. (2007). Familiensoziologische Analysepotenziale des Mikrozensus. ZfF Zeitschrift Für Familienforschung / JFR Journal of Family Research 19(2): 186–209.
Lengerer, A. and Klein, T. (2007). Der langfristige Wandel partnerschaftlicher Lebensformen im Spiegel des Mikrozensus. Wirtschaft Und Statistik 4: 433–447.
Lengerer, A., Schroedter, J.H., Boehle, M., and Wolf, C. (2020). Datenhandbuch GESIS Mikrozensus-Trendfile: Harmonisierung der Mikrozensen 1962 bis 2016. Köln: GESIS - Leibniz-Institut für Sozialwissenschaften, GESIS Papers Vol. 2020/18.
Leopold, T., Skopek, J., and Schulz, F. (2018). Gender convergence in housework time: A life course and cohort perspective’. Sociological Science 5: 281–303.
Lillard, L.A. and Waite, L.J. (1995). Til death do us part’: Marital disruption and mortality. American Journal of Sociology 100(5): 1131–1156.
Lundberg, S., Pollak, R.A., and Stearns, J. (2016). Family inequality: Diverging patterns in marriage, cohabitation, and childbearing. Journal of Economic Perspectives 30(2): 79–102.
Mahay, J. and Lewin, A.C. (2007). Age and the desire to marry. Journal of Family Issues 28(5): 706–723.
Matysiak, A., Styrc, M., and Vignoli, D. (2014). The educational gradient in marital disruption: A meta-analysis of European research findings. Population Studies 68(2): 197–215.
McDonald, P. (2000). Gender equity in theories of fertility transition. Population and Development Review 26(3): 427–439.
McDonald, P. (2000). Gender equity, social institutions and the future of fertility. Journal of Population Research 17(1): 1–16.
Meier, A., Musick, K., Flood, S., Dunifon, R., and Meier, A. (2016). Mothering experiences: How single parenthood and employment structure the emotional valence of parenting’. Demography 53(3): 649–674.
Naderi, R. (2015). Kinderzahl und Migrationshintergrund ‒ Ein Vergleich zwischen Frauen türkischer Herkunft mit oder ohne eigene Wanderungserfahrung sowie Frauen ohne Migrationshintergrund in Westdeutschland. ZfF Zeitschrift Für Familienforschung / JFR Journal of Family Research 27(3): 322–342.
Ní Bhrolcháin, M. and Beaujouan, É. (2012). Fertility postponement is largely due to rising educational enrolment. Population Studies 66(3): 311–327.
Nisén, J., Klüsener, S., Dahlberg, J., Dommermuth, L., Jasilioniene, A., Kreyenfeld, M., and Lappegård, T. (2021). Educational differences in cohort fertility across sub-national regions in Europe’. European Journal of Population 37: 263–295.
Oppenheimer, V.K. (1988). A theory of marriage timing’. American Journal of Sociology 94(3): 563–591.
Oppenheimer, V.K. (2000). The continuing importance of men’s economic position in marriage formation. In: Waite, L.J., Bachrach, C., Hindin, M., Thompson, E., and Thornton, A. (eds.). The ties that bind: Perspectives on marriage and cohabitation. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter: 283–301.
Oppenheimer, V.K. (1994). Women’s rising employment and the future of the family in industrial societies. Population and Development Review 20(2): 293–342.
Oreopoulos, P. and Petronijevic, U. (2013). Making college worth it: A review of research on the returns to higher education. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 19053.
Otte, G. and Rössel, J. (2011). Lebensstile in der Soziologie. Sonderheft 51 der Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie .
Philipov, D. (2009). Fertility intentions and outcomes: The role of policies to close the gap. European Journal of Population 25(4): 355–361.
Potarca, G. (2021). Online dating is shifting educational inequalities in marriage formation in Germany. Demography 58(5): 1977–2007.
Sandström, G. and Karlsson, L. (2019). The educational gradient of living alone. Demographic Research 40(55): 1645–1670.
Schroedter, J.H., Lechert, Y., and Lüttinger, P. (2006). Die Umsetzung der Bildungsskala ISCED-1997 für die Volkszählung 1970, die Mikrozensus-Zusatzerhebung 1971 und die Mikrozensen 1976‒2004. Mannheim: ZUMA, ZUMA-Methodenbericht 2006/08.
Schwarz, N. (2001). The German Microcensus. Schmollers Jahrbuch - Journal of Applied Science Studies 121: 649–654.
Skirbekk, V. (2008). Fertility trends by social status. Demographic Research 18(5): 145–180.
Skopek, J., Schulz, F., and Blossfeld, H.-P. (2011). Who contacts whom? Educational homophily in online mate selection. European Sociological Review 27(2): 180–195.
Sobotka, T. and Beaujouan, É. (2014). Two is best? The persistence of a two-child family ideal in Europe. Population and Development Review 40(3): 391–419.
Soons, J.P.M., Liefbroer, A.C., and Kalmijn, M. (2009). The long‐term consequences of relationship formation for subjective well‐being. Journal of Marriage and Family 71(5): 1254–1270.
Stanca, L. (2012). Suffer the Little Children: Measuring the effects of parenthood on well-being worldwide. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 81(3): 742–750.
Trappe, H., Pollmann-Schult, M., and Schmitt, C. (2015). The rise and decline of the male breadwinner model: Institutional underpinnings and future expectations. European Sociological Review 31(2): 230–242.
Trimarchi, A. and Van Bavel, J. (2017). Education and the transition to fatherhood: The role of selection into union. Demography 54(1): 119–144.
Van Bavel, J., Schwartz, C.R., and Esteve, A. (2018). The reversal of the gender gap in education and its consequences for family life. Annual Review of Sociology 44(May): 341–360.
Van Damme, M., Kalmijn, M., and Uunk, W. (2009). The employment of separated women in Europe: Individual and institutional determinants. European Sociological Review 25(2): 183–197.
Watkins, N.K. and Beckmeyer, J.J. (2020). Assessing young adults’ beliefs regarding the importance of romantic relationships. Journal of Family Issues 41(2): 158–182.
Zentner, M. and Eagly, A.H. (2015). A sociocultural framework for understanding partner preferences of women and men: Integration of concepts and evidence. European Review of Social Psychology 26(1): 328–373.
Zentner, M. and Mitura, K. (2012). Stepping out of the caveman’s shadow: Nations’ gender gap predicts degree of sex differentiation in mate preferences. Psychological Science 23(10): 1176–1185.