Volume 55 - Article 22 | Pages 679–716  

Work–family balance during the pandemic: Longitudinal evidence from 27 European countries

By Letizia Mencarini, Sanna Nivakoski, Francesca Agosti, Arnstein Aassve

References

Agassi, J.B. (1982). Comparing the work attitudes of women and men. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Download reference:

Alfano, V., Mariotti, I., Nappo, N., and Vecchione, G. (2024). Work-life balance during the COVID-19 pandemic. A European perspective. Journal of Industrial and Business Economics 51: 1041–1065.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Alison, A., Cattan, S., Costa Dias, M., Farquharson, C., Kraftman, L., Krutikova, S., Phimister, A., and Sevilla, A. (2020). How are mothers and fathers balancing work and family under lockdown? London: Institute for Fiscal Studies, IFS Briefing Note BN290.

Download reference:

Allen, T.D., Herst, D.E., Bruck, C.S., and Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: a review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 5(2): 278.

Download reference:

Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J., and Tertilt, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper w26947.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Anttila, T., Oinas, T., Tammelin, M., and Nätti, J. (2015). Working-time regimes and work-family balance in Europe. European Sociological Review 31(6): 713–724.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Arntz, M., Yahmed, S.B., and Berlingieri, F. (2020). Working from home and Covid-19: The chances and risks for gender gaps. Intereconomics 55(6): 381–386.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Bariola, N. and Collins, C. (2021). The gendered politics of pandemic relief: Labor and family policies in Denmark, Germany, and the United States during COVID-19. American Behavioral Scientist 65(12): 1671–1697.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Biroli, P., Bosworth, S., Della Giusta, M., Di Girolamo, A., Jaworska, S., and Vollen, J. (2021). Family life in lockdown. Frontiers in Psychology 12.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Blasko, Z. (2020). Working from home when teachers do the same – teleworking and work-family conflicts during COVID-19 lockdowns. SSRN 372930.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Bohen, H.H. (1981). Balancing jobs and family life: Do flexible work schedules help? New York: New York University.

Download reference:

Byron, K. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work–family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behavior 67(2): 169–198.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Cartwright, L.K. (1978). Career satisfaction and role harmony in a sample of young women physicians. Journal of Vocational Behavior 12(2): 184–196.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Cazan, A.M., Truță, C., and Pavalache-Ilie, M. (2019). The work-family conflict and satisfaction with life: Correlates and the mediating role of the work-family conflict. Romanian Journal of Psychology 21(1).

Weblink:
Download reference:

Chung, H., Birkett, H., Forbes, S., and Seo, H. (2021). Covid-19, flexible working, and implications for gender equality in the United Kingdom. Gender and Society 35(2): 218–232.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Chung, H. and Lippe, T. (2020). Flexible working, work–life balance, and gender equality: Introduction. Social Indicators Research 151(2): 365–381.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Chung, H., Seo, H., Forbes, S., and Birkett, H. (2020). Working from home during the COVID-19 lockdown: Changing preferences and the future of work. University of Kent and University of Birmingham.

Cipollone, A., Patacchini, E., and Vallanti, G. (2013). Women labor market performance in Europe: Novel evidence on trends and shaping factors. Esch-sur-Alzette: IZA, IZA Discussion Papers 7710.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Collins, C., Landivar, L.C., Ruppanner, L., and Scarborough, W.J. (2020). COVID-19 and the gender gap in work hours. Gender, Work and Organization 28: 101–112.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Costa Dias, M., Joyce, R., and Keiller, A.N. (2020). COVID-19 and the career prospects of young people. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies, Institute for Fiscal Studies Briefing Note 29.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Crompton, R. and Lyonette, C. (2006). Work-family ‘balance’ in Europe. Acta Sociologica 49(4): 379–393.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Del Boca, D. and Locatelli, M. (2008). The determinants of motherhood and work status: A survey. Motherhood and participation. In: Del Boca, D. and Wetzels, C. (eds.). Social policies, labor markets and motherhood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 155–180.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Del Boca, D., Oggero, N., Profeta, P., and Rossi, M.C. (2021). Did COVID-19 affect the division of labor within the household? Evidence from two waves of the pandemic in Italy. Esch-sur-Alzette: IZA, IZA DP 14453.

Download reference:

Del Boca, D., Oggero, N., Profeta, P., and Rossi, M.C. (2020). Women’s and men’s work, housework and childcare, before and during COVID-19. Review of Economics of the Household 18: 1001–1017.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). Los tres mundos del capitalismo del bienestar. Valencia: Alfons el Magnànim.

Download reference:

European Institute for Gender Equality (2021). Gender Equality Index 2021: Health. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

Download reference:

Fagan, C., Lyonette, C., Smith, M., and Saldaña-Tejeda, A. (2012). The influence of working time arrangements on work-life integration or ‘balance’: A review of the international evidence. Geneva: International Labour Organization, Conditions of Work and Employment Series.

Fanelli, E. and Profeta, P. (2021). Fathers’ involvement in the family, fertility, and maternal employment: Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe. Demography 58(5): 1931–1954.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Farré, L., Fawaz, Y., González, L., and Graves, J. (2020). How the Covid-19 lockdown affected gender inequality in paid and unpaid work in Spain. Esch-sur-Alzette: IZA, IZA Discussion Paper 13434.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Frone, M.R., Russell, M., and Cooper, M.L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology 77(1): 65.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Frone, M.R., Russell, M., and Cooper, M.L. (1997). Relation of work–family conflict to health outcomes: A four-year longitudinal study of employed parents. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 70(4): 325–335.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Gallie, D. and Russell, H. (2009). Work-family conflict and working conditions in Western Europe. Social Indicators Research 93(3): 445–467.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Golden, L. and Wiens-Tuers, B. (2006). To your happiness? Extra hours of labor supply and worker well-being. The Journal of Socio-Economics 35: 382–397.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Greenhaus, J.H. and Beutell, N.J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review 10(1): 76–88.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Gutek, B.A., Searle, S., and Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology 76(4): 560.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Herman, J.B. and Gyllstrom, K.K. (1977). Working men and women: Inter-and intra-role conflict. Psychology of Women Quarterly 1(4): 319–333.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Hipp, L. and Bünning, M. (2021). Parenthood as a driver of increased gender inequality during COVID-19? Exploratory evidence from Germany. European Societies 23(sup1): S658–S673.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Hofäcker, D. and König, S. (2013). Flexibility and work‐life conflict in times of crisis: A gender perspective. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 33(9–10): 613–635.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Hudde, A. and Nitsche, N. (2020). Countries embracing maternal employment have opened schools sooner after COVID-19 lockdowns. Rostock: MPIDR, MPIDR Working Paper WP 2022-008 l February 2022.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Hupkau, C. and Petrongolo, B. (2020). Work, care and gender during the Covid 19 crisis. Fiscal Studies 41(3): 623–651.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Innstrand, S.T., Grødal, K., and Christensen, M. (2024). Balancing work and family life during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring within and between group differences across time, gender, and worksites. Community, Work and Family 29(3): 453–472.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Kanter, R.M. (1989). Work and family in the United States: A critical review and agenda for research and policy. Family Business Review 2(1): 77–114.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Korpi, W. (2000). Faces of inequality: Gender, class, and patterns of inequalities in different types of welfare states. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 7(2): 127–191.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Krentz, M., Kos, E., Green, A., and Garcia-Alonso, J. (2020). Easing the COVID-19 burden on working parents. Boston: Boston Consulting Group.

Lefebvre, P., Merrigan, P., and Verstraete, M. (2009). Dynamic labour supply effects of childcare subsidies: Evidence from a Canadian natural experiment on low-fee universal childcare. Labour Economics 16(5): 490–502.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lewis, J. (1992). Gender and the development of welfare regimes. Journal of European Social Policy 2(3): 159–173.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lieblich, A. (1993). Preliminary comparison of Israeli and American successful career women at mid-family. Women in Israel 6: 195–208.

Download reference:

Llanes-Ordonez, J., Sanchez-Marti, A., and Buxarrais-Estrada, M.R. (2024). Work-family balance in times of COVID-19: A survey. Cogent Education 11(1): 2329394.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Loezar-Hernández, M., Briones-Vozmediano, E., Ronda-Pérez, E., and Otero-García, L. (2023). Juggling during lockdown: Balancing telework and family life in pandemic times and its perceived consequences for the health and wellbeing of working women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20(6): 4781.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lohmann, H. and Marx, I. (eds.) (2018). Handbook on in-work poverty. Edward Elgar Publishing.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lonska, J., Mietule, I., Litavniece, L., Arbidane, I., Vanadzins, I., Matisane, L., and Paegle, L. (2021). Work–life balance of the employed population during the emergency situation of COVID-19 in Latvia. Frontiers in Psychology 12.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lu, L., Gilmour, R., Kao, S.F., and Huang, M.T. (2006). A cross-cultural study of work/family demands, work/family conflict and wellbeing: The Taiwanese vs British. Career Development International 11(1): 9–27.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lyness, K.S. and Kropf, M.B. (2005). The relationships of national gender equality and organizational support with work-family balance: A study of European managers. Human Relations 58(1): 33–60.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Madgavkar, A., White, O., Krishnan, M., Mahajan, D., and Azcue, X. (2020). COVID-19 and gender equality: Countering the regressive effects. McKinsey Global Institute.

Download reference:

Major, V.S., Klein, K.J., and Ehrhart, M.G. (2002). Work time, work interference with family, and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Psychology 87(3): 427.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Matysiak, A., Mencarini, L., and Vignoli, D. (2016). Work–family conflict moderates the relationship between childbearing and subjective well-being. European Journal of Population 32: 355–379.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Möhring, K., Naumann, E., Reifenscheid, M., Wenz, A., Rettig, T., Krieger, U., Friedel, S., Finkel, M., Cornesse, C., and Blom, A.G. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and subjective well-being: Longitudinal evidence on satisfaction with work and family. European Societies 23(Suppl. 1): S601–S617.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Nivakoski, S. and Mascherini, M. (2021). Gender differences in the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on employment, unpaid work and well-being in the EU. Intereconomics 56(5): 254–260.

Weblink:
Download reference:

OECD. Background brief on father’s leave and its use. Paris: OECD Publishing.

Petts, R.J., Carlson, D.L., and Pepin, J.R. (2021). A gendered pandemic: Childcare, homeschooling, and parents’ employment during COVID-19. Gender, Work and Organization 28: 515–534.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Poelmans, S. (2003). The multi-level ‘fit’ model of work and family. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 3(3): 267–274.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Profeta, P., Calò, X., and Occhiuzzi, R. (2021). COVID-19 and its economic impact on women and women’s poverty: Insights from 5 European countries. Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, Directorate-General for Internal Policies.

Reimann, M., Peters, E., and Diewald, M. (2022). COVID-19 and work–family conflicts in Germany: Risks and chances across gender and parenthood. Frontiers in Sociology 6: 780740.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Rubery, J. and Tavora, I. (2020). The COVID-19 crisis and gender equality: Risks and opportunities. In: Vanhercke, B., Spasova, S., and Fronteddu, B. (eds.). Social policy in the European Union: State of Play. Brussels: OSE and ETUI: 71–96.

Download reference:

Ruzungunde, V.S. and Zhou, S. (2021). Work-family balance in the face of COVID-19: The gendered impact. Gender and Behaviour 19(2): 18098–18106.

Download reference:

Sánchez-Mangas, R. and Sánchez-Marcos, V. (2008). Balancing family and work: The effect of cash benefits for working mothers. Labour Economics 15(6): 1127–1142.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Sevilla, A. and Smith, S. (2020). Baby steps: The gender division of childcare during the COVID-19 pandemic. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 36(Supplement_1): 169–186.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Shafiro, M. and Hammer, L.B. (2004). Work and family: A cross-cultural psychological perspective. In: Kossek, E. and Pitt-Catsouphes, M. (eds.). Work-family encyclopedia. Chestnut Hill: Sloan Work and Family Research Network at Boston College.

Download reference:

Sostero, M., Milasi, S., Hurley, J., Fernandez-Macias, E., and Bisello, M. (2020). Teleworkability and the COVID-19 crisis: A new digital divide? Sevilla: Joint Research Centre, JRC Working Papers Series on Labour, Education and Technology 2020/05.

Download reference:

Spector, P.E., Allen, T.D., Poelmans, S., Cooper, C.L., Bernin, P., Hart, P., and Yu, S. (2005). An international comparative study of work/family stress and occupational strain. In: Poelmans, S.A.Y. (ed.). Work and family: An international research perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum: 71–84.

Download reference:

Tausig, M. and Fenwick, R. (2001). Unbinding time: Alternate work schedules and work-life balance. Journal of Family and Economic Issues 22(2): 101–119.

Weblink:
Download reference:

United Nations (2020). Policy Brief: The impact of COVID-19 on women.

van der Lippe, T. and Lippényi, Z. (2020). Beyond formal access: Organizational context, working from home, and work–family conflict of men and women in European workplaces. Social Indicators Research 151(2): 383–402.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Voydanoff, P. (1988). Work role characteristics, family structure demands, and work/family conflict. Journal of Marriage and the Family 50(3): 749–761.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Yang, N., Chen, C.C., Choi, J., and Zou, Y. (2000). Sources of work-family conflict: A Sino-US comparison of the effects of work and family demands. Academy of Management Journal 43(1): 113–123.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Yerkes, M.A., André, S.C., Besamusca, J.W., Kruyen, P.M., Remery, C.L., Zwan, R., and Geurts, S.A. (2020). Intelligent’ lockdown, intelligent effects? Results from a survey on gender (in)equality in paid work, the division of childcare and household work, and quality of life among parents in the Netherlands during the Covid-19 lockdown. PLoS One 15(11): e0242249.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Zoch, G., Bächmann, A.C., and Vicari, B. (2021). Gender differences in reduced well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic – the role of working conditions. Nürnberg: Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung IAB, IAB-Discussion Paper 4/2021.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Back to the article