Volume 55 - Article 7 | Pages 223–274
Heterogeneity in women’s public and private agency across sub-Saharan Africa
References
Adeyemi, E.I. and Gayawan, E. (2024). Analysis of the geographical variations in women’s empowerment in Nigeria. African Geographical Review 43(2): 333–349.
Ahinkorah, B.O., Dickson, K.S., and Seidu, A.A. (2018). Women decision-making capacity and intimate partner violence among women in sub-Saharan Africa. Archives of Public Health 76: 5.
Asaolu, I.O., Alaofè, H., Gunn, J.K.L., Adu, A.K., Monroy, A.J., Ehiri, J.E., Hayden, M.H., and Ernst, K.C. (2018). Measuring women’s empowerment in sub-Saharan Africa: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the Demographic and Health Surveys. Frontiers in Psychology 9: 994.
Banks, J., Sweeney, S., and Meiring, W. (2022). The geography of women’s empowerment in West Africa. Spatial Demography 10(2): 387–412.
Batliwala, S. (1994). The meaning of women’s empowerment: New concepts from action. In: Sen, G., Germain, A., and Chen, L.C. (eds.). Population policies reconsidered: Health, empowerment and rights. Boston, MA: Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies: 127–138.
Becker, G.S. (1991). A treatise on the family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Boateng, G.O., Mumba, D., Asare-Bediako, Y., and Boateng, M.O. (2014). Examining the correlates of gender equality and the empowerment of married women in Zambia. African Geographical Review 33(1): 1–18.
Boserup, E. (1970). Woman’s role in economic development. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Brixiová, Z., Kangoye, T., and Tregenna, F. (2020). Enterprising women in Southern Africa: When does land ownership matter? Journal of Family and Economic Issues 41: 37–51.
Celeux, G. and Soromenho, G. (1996). An entropy criterion for assessing the number of clusters in a mixture model. Journal of Classification 13(2): 195–212.
Collins, L.M. and Lanza, S.T. (2010). Latent class and latent transition analysis: With applications in the social behavioral, and health sciences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Corroon, M., Speizer, I.S., Fotso, J.C., Akiode, A., Saad, A., Calhoun, L., and Irani, L. (2014). The role of gender empowerment on reproductive health outcomes in urban Nigeria. Maternal and Child Health Journal 18(1): 307–315.
Desai, S., Chen, F., Reddy, S., and McLaughlin, A. (2022). Measuring women’s empowerment in the Global South. Annual Review of Sociology 48(1): 507–527.
Dolan, C. (2001). The ‘good wife’: Struggles over resources in the Kenyan horticultural sector. The Journal of Development Studies 37(3): 39–70.
Enders, C.K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York: Guilford Press.
Englert, B. and Daley, E. (2008). Women’s land rights and privatization in Eastern Africa. Oxford: James Currey.
Ewerling, F., Raj, A., Victora, C.G., Hellwig, F., Coll, C.V., and Barros, A.J. (2020). SWPER Global: A survey-based women’s empowerment index expanded from Africa to all low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Global Health 10(2): 020343.
Gammage, S., Kabeer, N., and Meulen Rodgers, Y. (2015). Voice and agency: Where are we now? Feminist Economics 22(1): 1–29.
Grabe, S., Grose, R.G., and Dutt, A. (2015). Women’s land ownership and relationship power: A mixed methods approach to understanding structural inequities and violence against women. Psychology of Women Quarterly 39(1): 7–19.
Heckert, J. and Fabic, M.S. (2013). Improving data concerning women’s empowerment in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies in Family Planning 44(3): 319–344.
Hindin, M.J. (2000). Women’s autonomy, women’s status and fertility-related behavior in Zimbabwe. Population Research and Policy Review 19: 255–282.
Hosegood, V. (2009). The demographic impact of HIV and AIDS across the family and household life-cycle: Implications for efforts to strengthen families in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS Care 21(Suppl 1): 13–21.
Jejeebhoy, S.J., Santhya, K.G., Acharya, R., and Prakash, R. (2012). Marriage-related decision-making and young women’s marital relations and agency: Evidence from India. Asian Population Studies 9(1): 28–49.
Kabeer, N. (2005). Gender equality and women’s empowerment: A critical analysis of the third millennium development goal 1. Gender and Development 13(1): 13–24.
Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and Change 30(3): 435–464.
Kazembe, L.N. (2020). Women empowerment in Namibia: Measurement, determinants and geographical disparities. World Development Perspectives 19: 100211.
Kilgallen, J.A., Schaffnit, S.B., Kumogola, Y., Urassa, M., and Lawson, D.W. (2025). Understanding gender differences in acceptance of intimate partner violence against women: Are women truly more accepting than men? Journal of Interpersonal Violence 41(9–10).
Koenig, M.A., Ahmed, S., Hossain, M.B., and Khorshed Alam Mozumder, A.B.M. (2003). Women’s status and domestic violence in rural Bangladesh: Individual- and community-level effects. Demography 40(2): 269–288.
Larsen, U. and Hollos, M. (2003). Women’s empowerment and fertility decline among the Pare of Kilimanjaro region, Northern Tanzania. Social Science and Medicine 57(6): 1099–1115.
Malhotra, A. and Schuler, S.R. (2005). Women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. In: Narayan, D. (ed.). Measuring empowerment: cross-disciplinary perspectives. Washington, DC: World Bank: 71–88.
Mason, K.O. (2005). Measuring women’s empowerment: Learning from cross-national research. In: Narayan, D. (ed.). Measuring empowerment: cross-disciplinary perspectives. Washington, DC: World Bank: 89–102.
McCutcheon, A.L. (1987). Latent class analysis. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Miedema, S.S., Haardörfer, R., Girard, A.W., and Yount, K.M. (2018). Women’s empowerment in East Africa: Development of a cross-country comparable measure. World Development 110: 453–464.
Mkhwanazi, N. and Manderson, L. (2020). Connected lives: Families, households, health and care in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Mubecua, M.A. and Nojiyeza, S. (2019). Land expropriation without compensation: The challenges of Black South African women in land ownership. Journal of Gender, Information and Development in Africa 8(3): 7–19.
Muthén, B. and Muthén, L.K. (2000). Integrating person-centered and variable-centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 24(6): 882–891.
Nahar, S. and Mengo, C.W. (2022). Measuring women’s empowerment in developing countries: A systematic review. Journal of International Development 34(2): 322–333.
Narayan-Parker, D. (2005). Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Niño-Zarazúa, M., Barrientos, A., Hickey, S., and Hulme, D. (2012). social protection in sub-Saharan Africa: Getting the politics right. World Development 40(1): 163–176.
Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A., and Chiuri, W. (2011). Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and intra-household dynamics: Does the choice of commodity matter? European Journal of Development Research 23(3): 426–443.
Nyblade, L., Stockton, M.A., Giger, K., Bond, V., Ekstrand, M.L., Lean, R.M., Mitchell, E.M.H., Nelson, L.R.E., Sapag, J.C., Siraprapasiri, T., Turan, J., and Wouters, E. (2019). Stigma in health facilities: Why it matters and how we can change it. BMC Medicine 17(1): 25.
Nylund, K.L., Asparouhov, T., and Muthén, B.O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling 14(4): 535–569.
Paintsil, J.A., Adde, K.S., Ameyaw, E.K., Dickson, K.S., and Yaya, S. (2023). Gender differences in the acceptance of wife-beating: Evidence from 30 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Women’s Health 23(1): 451.
Phan, L. (2016). Measuring women’s empowerment at household level using DHS data of four Southeast Asian countries. Social Indicators Research 126(1): 359–378.
Posel, D.R. (2001). Who are the heads of households, what do they do, and is the concept of headship useful? An analysis of headship in South Africa. Development Southern Africa 18(5): 651–670.
Rettig, E.M., Fick, S.E., and Hijmans, R.J. (2020). The Female Empowerment Index (FEMI): Spatial and temporal variation in women’s empowerment in Nigeria. Heliyon 6(5): e03829.
Schatz, E., Madhavan, S., and Williams, J. (2011). Female-headed households contending with AIDS-related hardship in rural South Africa. Health and Place 17(2): 598–605.
Sen, A. (1985). Well-being, agency and freedom: The Dewey lectures 1984. The Journal of Philosophy 82(4): 169–221.
Sen, G. and Batliwala, S. (2000). Empowering women for reproductive rights. New York: Oxford University Press.
Syed, J. (2010). Reconstructing gender empowerment. Women’s Studies International Forum 33(3): 283–294.
Tessema, Z.T., Worku, M.G., Tesema, G.A., Alamneh, T.S., Teshale, A.B., Yeshaw, Y., Alem, A.Z., Ayalew, H.G., and Liyew, A.M. (2022). Determinants of accessing healthcare in sub-Saharan Africa: A mixed-effect analysis of recent Demographic and Health Surveys from 36 countries. BMJ Open 12(1): e054397.
UN Women (2019). Progress of the world’s women 2019–2020. New York: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.
UNICEF (2022). Child marriage in Eastern and Southern Africa. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.
Upadhyay, U.D., Gipson, J.D., Withers, M., Lewis, S., Ciaraldi, E.J., Fraser, A., Huchko, M.J., and Prata, N. (2014). Women’s empowerment and fertility: A review of the literature. Social Science and Medicine 115: 111–120.
Uthman, O.A., Lawoko, S., and Moradi, T. (2009). Factors associated with attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women: A comparative analysis of 17 sub-Saharan countries. BMC International Health and Human Rights 9(1): 14.
Vogler, C. (1998). Money in the household: Some underlying issues of power. The Sociological Review 46(4): 687–713.
World Bank (2022). Girls' education. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
Yount, K.M., VanderEnde, K.E., Dodell, S., and Cheong, Y.F. (2016). Measurement of women’s agency in Egypt: A national validation study. Social Indicators Research 128(3): 1171–1192.